Isis Structural Functionalism, Social Conflict, And...

In this paper, I will analyze a film about ISIS and explain how all three theoretical perspectives: Structural functionalism, social conflict, and symbolic interactionism. This film analyzes paper will give the reader in-depth look at ISIS and its sociological concept. On August3, 2014, ISIS went to a village at 2:00 p.m and destroyed a lot of houses in the village. They massacre hundreds of Yazidi men. They took 3,000 women and children captive. Thousands of Yazidis, who survived the ISIS rampage fled to Sinjar Mountains. Khalil and other women explain their story of their experience with ISIS experience and what they believe. On August 3, 2014, ISIS went to a village at 2:00 p.m. and destroyed a lot of houses in the village. ISIS massacred thousands of Yazidi men and took 3,000 women and children captive. Khalil s an ex-lawyer quit his job to help Yazidi women and children from ISIS. He now runs a secret network of contacts inside ISIS territory that helps captive women escape th rough an underground railroad. Khalil and his team of Yazidi men work from his new home in Kurdish-controlled northern Iraq, away from the frontline with ISIS. Even though Khalil knows the danger of helping women escape ISIS territory he is willingly doing it to give hope to the Yazidi people. ISIS believes Yazidi women can be enslaved under their interpretation of Islam. In a recorded video a man was talking about women and was referring Yazidi women as a â€Å"sabya,† which means slaves

On Virtue and Happiness, by John Stuart Mill

English philosopher and social reformer John Stuart Mill was one of the major intellectual figures of the 19th century and a founding member of the Utilitarian Society. In the following excerpt from his long philosophical essay Utilitarianism, Mill relies on strategies of classification and division to defend the utilitarian doctrine that happiness is the sole end of human action. On Virtue and Happiness by John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being only desirable as means to that end. What ought to be required of this doctrine,what conditions is it requisite that the doctrine should fulfill, to make good its claim to be believed? The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it. The only proof that a sound is audible, is that people hear it; and so of the other sources of our experience. In like manner, I apprehend, the sole evidence it is possible to produce that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it. If the end which the utilitarian doctrine proposes to itself were not, in theory and in practice, acknowledged to be an end, nothing could ever convince any person that it was so. No reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable, except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires his own happiness. This, however, being a fact, we have not only all the proof which the case admits of, but all which it is possible to require, that happiness is a good, that each persons happiness is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons. Happiness has made out its t itle as one of the ends of conduct, and consequently one of the criteria of morality. But it has not, by this alone, proved itself to be the sole criterion. To do that, it would seem, by the same rule, necessary to show, not only that people desire happiness, but that they never desire anything else. Now it is palpable that they do desire things which, in common language, are decidedly distinguished from happiness. They desire, for example, virtue, and the absence of vice, no less really than pleasure and the absence of pain. The desire of virtue is not as universal, but it is as authentic a fact, as the desire of happiness. And hence the opponents of the utilitarian standard deem that they have a right to infer that there are other ends of human action besides happiness, and that happiness is not the standard of approbation and disapprobation. But does the utilitarian doctrine deny that people desire virtue, or maintain that virtue is not a thing to be desired? The very reverse. It maintains not only that virtue is to be desired, but that it is to be desired disinterestedly, for itself. Whatever may be the opinion of utilitarian moralists as to the original conditions by which virtue is made virtue, however they may believe (as they do) that actions and dispositions are only virtuous because they promote another end than virtue, yet this being granted, and it having been decided, from considerations of this description, what is virtuous, they not only place virtue at the very head of the things which are good as means to the ultimate end, but they also recognize as a psychological fact the possibility of its being, to the individual, a good in itself, without looking to any end beyond it; and hold, that the mind is not in a right state, not in a state conformable to Utility, not in the state most conducive to the general h appiness, unless it does love virtue in this manner—as a thing desirable in itself, even although, in the individual instance, it should not produce those other desirable consequences which it tends to produce, and on account of which it is held to be virtue. This opinion is not, in the smallest degree, a departure from the Happiness principle. The ingredients of happiness are very various, and each of them is desirable in itself, and not merely when considered as swelling an aggregate. The principle of utility does not mean that any given pleasure, as music, for instance, or any given exemption from pain, as for example health, is to be looked upon as means to a collective something termed happiness, and to be desired on that account. They are desired and desirable in and for themselves; besides being means, they are a part of the end. Virtue, according to the utilitarian doctrine, is not naturally and originally part of the end, but it is capable of becoming so; and in thos e who love it disinterestedly it has become so, and is desired and cherished, not as a means to happiness, but as a part of their happiness. Concluded on page two Continued from page oneTo illustrate this farther, we may remember that virtue is not the only thing, originally a means, and which if it were not a means to anything else, would be and remain indifferent, but which by association with what it is a means to, comes to be desired for itself, and that too with the utmost intensity. What, for example, shall we say of the love of money? There is nothing originally more desirable about money than about any heap of glittering pebbles. Its worth is solely that of the things which it will buy; the desires for other things than itself, which it is a means of gratifying. Yet the love of money is not only one of the strongest moving forces of human life, but money is, in many cases, desired in and for itself; the desire to possess it is often stronger than the desire to use it, and goes on increasing when all the desires which point to ends beyond it, to be compassed by it, are falling off. It may, then, be said truly, that money is desired not for the sake of an end, but as part of the end. From being a means to happiness, it has come to be itself a principal ingredient of the individuals conception of happiness. The same may be said of the majority of the great objects of human life:power, for example, or fame; except that to each of these there is a certain amount of immediate pleasure annexed, which has at least the semblance of being naturally inherent in them—a thing which cannot be said of money. Still, however, the strongest natural attraction, both of power and of fame, is the immense aid they give to the attainment of our other wishes; and it is the strong association thus generated between them and all our objects of desire, which gives to the direct desire of them the intensity it often assumes, so as in some characters to surpass in strength all other desires. In these cases the means have become a part of the end, and a more important part of it than any of the things which they are means to. What was once desired as an instrument for the attainment of happiness, has come to be desired for its own sake. In being desired for its own sake it is, however, desired as part of happiness. The person is made, or thinks he would be made, happy by its mere possession; and is made unhappy by failure to obtain it. The desire of it is not a different thing from the desire of happiness, any more than the love of music, or the desire of health. They are included in happiness. They are some of the elements of which the desire of happiness is made up. Happiness is not an abstract idea, but a concrete whole; and these are some of its parts. And the utilitarian standard sanctions and approves their being so. Life would be a poor thing, very ill provided with sources of happiness, if there were not this provision of nature, by which things originally indifferent, but conducive to, or otherwise associated with, the satisfaction of our primitive desires, become in themselves sources of pleasure more v aluable than the primitive pleasures, both in permanency, in the space of human existence that they are capable of covering, and even in intensity. Virtue, according to the utilitarian conception, is a good of this description. There was no original desire of it, or motive to it, save its conduciveness to pleasure, and especially to protection from pain. But through the association thus formed, it may be felt a good in itself, and desired as such with as great intensity as any other good; and with this difference between it and the love of money, of power, or of fame—that all of these may, and often do, render the individual noxious to the other members of the society to which he belongs, whereas there is nothing which makes him so much a blessing to them as the cultivation of the disinterested love of virtue. And consequently, the utilitarian standard, while it tolerates and approves those other acquired desires, up to the point beyond which they would be more injurious to the general happiness than promotive of it, enjoins and requires the cultivation of the love of virtue up to the greatest strength possible, as being above all things important to the general happiness. It results from the preceding considerations, that there is in reality nothing desired except happiness. Whatever is desired otherwise than as a means to some end beyond itself, and ultimately to happiness, is desired as itself a part of happiness, and is not desired for itself until it has become so. Those who desire virtue for its own sake, desire it either because the consciousness of it is a pleasure, or because the consciousness of being without it is a pain, or for both reasons united; as in truth the pleasure and pain seldom exist separately, but almost always together—the same person feeling pleasure in the degree of virtue attained, and pain in not having attained more. If one of these gave him no pleasure, and the other no pain, he would not love or desire virtue, or would desire it only for the other benefits which it might produce to himself or to persons whom he cared for. We have now, then, an answer to the question, of what sort of proof the principle of utility is susceptible. If the opinion which I have now stated is psychologically true—if human nature is so constituted as to desire nothing which is not either a part of happiness or a means of happiness, we can have no other proof, and we require no other, that these are the only things desirable. If so, happiness is the sole end of human action, and the promotion of it the test by which to judge of all human conduct; from whence it necessarily follows that it must be the criterion of morality, since a part is included in the whole. (1863)

Dissertation Guide on Accession of Turkey into the EU Free Essays

The following guide represents a our site writer’s view on how he would approach a law dissertation on the accession of Turkey into the European Union. The guide presents a background of the writer’s education, his understand of the topic and how he would tackle it. Part 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Dissertation Guide on Accession of Turkey into the EU or any similar topic only for you Order Now 0: My Understanding of the topic I am a recent law graduate from the University of Glasgow (diploma in legal practice) after having studied the Accelerated LLB at the University of Edinburgh. I have a previous degree in journalism and have been writing for our site, specialising in legal research and essays, for one year. I have studied EU law as part of my course and enjoyed it immensely. I have written three law dissertations already for our site and I have been achieving a level of first class (70%+) thus far. I am a sharp and articulate writer who is also very interested in EU law and political affairs. I have access to a vast array of legal journals and books here in Edinburgh on the subject and I have conducted some research already into the accession of Turkey into the EU and the possible implications. The question you are looking to answer is challenging and cutting edge and I strongly believe I could write you not just a 2:1 dissertation but one to a first class level. As regards the topic I think that the best way to do things is to a comparative study with Eastern European countries which takes into account the Arab spring to give it a cutting edge[1]. If we take an example such as Bulgaria or Romania we can see to what extent these countries influenced the whole region. It could be argued that Poland’s accession was vital to opening up the political processes in these other countries which now includes Croatia as well. Of course the reality of the situation is that Turkey is facing an almost insufferable amount of delay from the EU which has blocked its accession since negotiations began in 2005 principally because of its questionable human rights record and the vexed question of Cyprus[2]. Martin Kettle of the Guardian rightly observes: â€Å"Last, but not least, there is the question of whether the EU can rise above its own perennial self-absorption and grasp that its relationship with Turkey, a European country of 77 million people and with a rapidly and roaringly expanding GDP of $875bn – the China of Europe, as the Economist dubbed it last week – can no longer be held hostage by the atavistic parochialism of a Greek Cypriot statelet of fewer than one million people and with a declining GDP of $23bn.†[3] So although they have faced insufferable delays due to a number of matters it is not unthinkable to say they will surely join before we see 2025 as Kettle points out. My hypothesis would be that the accession of Turkey to the EU, uniquely placed as it is between muslims and christianity, will be nothing less than the missing link between the two and could perhaps open up the EU to the accession of those countries which have ignited the flames of democracy in the Arab Spring. Could Egypt, Tunisia and even Libya be EU members by 2025This dissertation will attempt to navigate the difficult waters of what EU accession means, what it involves and what are its common effects. The accession ofTurkey to the EU could also be viewed as turning the Arab Spring into something which is enduring and that will change the face of the Middle East. The next part will have the proposed structure of the dissertation. Part 2The proposed structure of the dissertation Introduction3 Chapter 1: Background, overview and hypothesis8 The concept of enlargement of the EU 8 The accession of Turkey12 The current state of affairs in the EU 14 The EU legal aspects of accession 15 The EU in crisis 16 Hypothesis 16 Chapter 2: Case study of Eastern European countries 16 The accession of Bulgaria and Romania 16 The accession of Poland18 Political, economic and democratic effects19 Results and conclusions 21 Chapter 3: The Arab Spring 27 Tunisia, Egypt and Libya 27 What are the implications of the Arab Spring 28 Is the Arab Spring finished 29 The interplay of the revolutions and Turkey’s accession to the EU 30 Chapter 4: Research on the effects of Turkish accession on the Middle East30 Political 30 Economic 32 Democratic 33 Chapter 5: The future of Turkey and the EU: is accession realistic 35 The EU reports on Turkey’s membership 32 The economic crisis in the EU: does it make Turkish accession more or less likely 34 Chapter 6: Recommendations 38 Reforming the Copenhagen criteria 38 The Euro39 C. Relaxing requirements for Middle Eastern countries 39 Conclusion 41 Bibliography 42 Part 3 Final Comments It is important to note that this is just a first draft for the structure so it is open to changes. I chose Poland, Bulgaria and Romania as case studies to look at as a model for Turkey’s accession. It might also be possible to look at Croatia which is the latest country to join the EU. The case studies should look at the economic, political and democratic effect of the accession of each of these countries on the Balkans. I think it could be a terrific dissertation which is timely and challenging. [1] To exclude the Arab Spring would be to ignore the most significant political developments in the Middle East of recent decades – this study needs to look at it to have any legitimacy [2] http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/oct/28/turkey-eu-accession-bid-why-bother [3] Kettle, Martin (2010) ‘Disgracefully, Turkey’s EU Accession Bid is Going Nowhere Soon’ from Guardian online retrieved on 18th June 2011 and available from: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/oct/28/turkey-eu-accession-bid-why-bother How to cite Dissertation Guide on Accession of Turkey into the EU, Essays

Dissertation Guide on Accession of Turkey into the EU Free Essays

The following guide represents a our site writer’s view on how he would approach a law dissertation on the accession of Turkey into the European Union. The guide presents a background of the writer’s education, his understand of the topic and how he would tackle it. Part 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Dissertation Guide on Accession of Turkey into the EU or any similar topic only for you Order Now 0: My Understanding of the topic I am a recent law graduate from the University of Glasgow (diploma in legal practice) after having studied the Accelerated LLB at the University of Edinburgh. I have a previous degree in journalism and have been writing for our site, specialising in legal research and essays, for one year. I have studied EU law as part of my course and enjoyed it immensely. I have written three law dissertations already for our site and I have been achieving a level of first class (70%+) thus far. I am a sharp and articulate writer who is also very interested in EU law and political affairs. I have access to a vast array of legal journals and books here in Edinburgh on the subject and I have conducted some research already into the accession of Turkey into the EU and the possible implications. The question you are looking to answer is challenging and cutting edge and I strongly believe I could write you not just a 2:1 dissertation but one to a first class level. As regards the topic I think that the best way to do things is to a comparative study with Eastern European countries which takes into account the Arab spring to give it a cutting edge[1]. If we take an example such as Bulgaria or Romania we can see to what extent these countries influenced the whole region. It could be argued that Poland’s accession was vital to opening up the political processes in these other countries which now includes Croatia as well. Of course the reality of the situation is that Turkey is facing an almost insufferable amount of delay from the EU which has blocked its accession since negotiations began in 2005 principally because of its questionable human rights record and the vexed question of Cyprus[2]. Martin Kettle of the Guardian rightly observes: â€Å"Last, but not least, there is the question of whether the EU can rise above its own perennial self-absorption and grasp that its relationship with Turkey, a European country of 77 million people and with a rapidly and roaringly expanding GDP of $875bn – the China of Europe, as the Economist dubbed it last week – can no longer be held hostage by the atavistic parochialism of a Greek Cypriot statelet of fewer than one million people and with a declining GDP of $23bn.†[3] So although they have faced insufferable delays due to a number of matters it is not unthinkable to say they will surely join before we see 2025 as Kettle points out. My hypothesis would be that the accession of Turkey to the EU, uniquely placed as it is between muslims and christianity, will be nothing less than the missing link between the two and could perhaps open up the EU to the accession of those countries which have ignited the flames of democracy in the Arab Spring. Could Egypt, Tunisia and even Libya be EU members by 2025This dissertation will attempt to navigate the difficult waters of what EU accession means, what it involves and what are its common effects. The accession ofTurkey to the EU could also be viewed as turning the Arab Spring into something which is enduring and that will change the face of the Middle East. The next part will have the proposed structure of the dissertation. Part 2The proposed structure of the dissertation Introduction3 Chapter 1: Background, overview and hypothesis8 The concept of enlargement of the EU 8 The accession of Turkey12 The current state of affairs in the EU 14 The EU legal aspects of accession 15 The EU in crisis 16 Hypothesis 16 Chapter 2: Case study of Eastern European countries 16 The accession of Bulgaria and Romania 16 The accession of Poland18 Political, economic and democratic effects19 Results and conclusions 21 Chapter 3: The Arab Spring 27 Tunisia, Egypt and Libya 27 What are the implications of the Arab Spring 28 Is the Arab Spring finished 29 The interplay of the revolutions and Turkey’s accession to the EU 30 Chapter 4: Research on the effects of Turkish accession on the Middle East30 Political 30 Economic 32 Democratic 33 Chapter 5: The future of Turkey and the EU: is accession realistic 35 The EU reports on Turkey’s membership 32 The economic crisis in the EU: does it make Turkish accession more or less likely 34 Chapter 6: Recommendations 38 Reforming the Copenhagen criteria 38 The Euro39 C. Relaxing requirements for Middle Eastern countries 39 Conclusion 41 Bibliography 42 Part 3 Final Comments It is important to note that this is just a first draft for the structure so it is open to changes. I chose Poland, Bulgaria and Romania as case studies to look at as a model for Turkey’s accession. It might also be possible to look at Croatia which is the latest country to join the EU. The case studies should look at the economic, political and democratic effect of the accession of each of these countries on the Balkans. I think it could be a terrific dissertation which is timely and challenging. [1] To exclude the Arab Spring would be to ignore the most significant political developments in the Middle East of recent decades – this study needs to look at it to have any legitimacy [2] http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/oct/28/turkey-eu-accession-bid-why-bother [3] Kettle, Martin (2010) ‘Disgracefully, Turkey’s EU Accession Bid is Going Nowhere Soon’ from Guardian online retrieved on 18th June 2011 and available from: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/oct/28/turkey-eu-accession-bid-why-bother How to cite Dissertation Guide on Accession of Turkey into the EU, Essays

Powder Metallurgy free essay sample

Powder metallurgy is the process of blending fine powdered materials, pressing them into a desired shape or form (compacting), and then heating the compressed material in a controlled atmosphere to bond the material (sintering). The powder metallurgy process generally consists of four basic steps: (1) powder manufacture, (2) powder blending,(3) compacting, (4) sintering. Compacting is generally performed at room temperature, and the elevated-temperature process of sintering is usually conducted at atmospheric pressure. Optional secondary processing often follows to obtain special properties or enhanced precision. 1] Two main techniques used to form and consolidate the powder are sintering and metal injection molding. Recent developments have made it possible to use rapid manufacturing techniques which use the metal powder for the products. Because with this technique the powder is melted and not sintered, better mechanical strength can be accomplished. History and capabilities The hi story of powder metallurgy (PM) and the art of metals and ceramics sintering are intimately related to each other. We will write a custom essay sample on Powder Metallurgy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Sintering involves the production of a hard solid metal or ceramic piece from a starting powder. While a crude form of iron powder metallurgy existed in Egypt as early as 3000 B. C, and the ancient Incas made jewelry and other artifacts from precious metal powders, mass manufacturing of P/M products did not begin until the mid-or late- 19th century. [2] In these early manufacturing operations, iron was extracted by hand from metal sponge following reduction and was then reintroduced as a powder for final melting or sintering. A much wider range of products can be obtained from powder processes than from direct alloying of fused materials. In melting operations the phase rule applies to all pure and combined elements and strictly dictates the distribution of liquid and solid phases which can exist for specific compositions. In addition, whole body melting of starting materials is required for alloying, thus imposing unwelcome chemical, thermal, and containment constraints on manufacturing. Unfortunately, the handling of aluminium/iron powders poses major problems. [3] Other substances that are especially reactive with atmospheric oxygen, such as tin, are sinterable in special atmospheres or with temporary coatings. 4] In powder metallurgy or ceramics it is possible to fabricate components which otherwise would decompose or disintegrate. All considerations of solid-liquid phase changes can be ignored, so powder processes are more flexible than casting, extrusion, or forging techniques. Controllable characteristics of products prepared using various powder technologies include mechanical, magnetic,[5] and other unconvent ional properties of such materials as porous solids, aggregates, and intermetallic compounds. Competitive characteristics of manufacturing processing (e. g. , tool wear, complexity, or vendor options) also may be closely regulated. Powder Metallurgy products are today used in a wide range of industries, from automotive and aerospace applications to power tools and household appliances. Each year the international PM awards highlight the developing capabilities of the technology. [6] Isostatic powder compacting Isostatic powder compacting is a mass-conserving shaping process. Fine metal particles are placed into a flexible mould and then high gas or fluid pressure is applied to the mould. The resulting article is then sintered in a furnace. This increases the strength of the part by bonding the metal particles. This manufacturing process produces very little scrap metal and can be used to make many different shapes. The tolerances that this process can achieve are very precise, ranging from +/- 0. 008Â  inches (0. 2Â  mm) for axial dimensions and +/- 0. 020Â  inches (0. 5Â  mm) for radial dimensions. This is the most efficient type of powder compacting. (The following subcategories are also from this reference. )[7] This operation is generally applicable on small production quantities, as it is more costly to run due to its slow operating speed and the need for expendable tooling. oda[8] Compacting pressures range from 15,000Â  psi (100,000 kPa) to 40,000Â  psi (280,000 kPa) for most metals and approximately 2,000Â  psi (14,000Â  kPa) to 10,000Â  psi (69,000 kPa) for non-metals. The density of isostatic compacted parts is 5% to 10% higher than with other powder metallurgy processes. Equipment There are many types of equipment used in Powder Compacting. There is the mold, which is f lexible, a pressure mold that the mold is in, and the machine delivering the pressure. There are also controlling devices to control the amount of pressure and how long the pressure is held for. The machines need to apply anywhere from 15,000 psi to 40,000 psi for metals. Geometrical Possibilities Typical workpiece sizes range from 0. 25Â  in (6. 35Â  mm) to 0. 75Â  in (19. 05Â  mm) thick and 0. 5Â  in (12. 70Â  mm) to 10Â  in (254Â  mm) long. It is possible to compact workpieces that are between 0. 0625Â  in (1. 59Â  mm) and 5Â  in (127Â  mm) thick and 0. 0625Â  in (1. 59Â  mm) to 40Â  in (1,016Â  mm) long. Tool style Isostatic tools are available in three styles, free mold (wet-bag), coarse mold(damp-bag), and fixed mold (dry-bag). The free mold style is the traditional style of isostatic compaction and is not generally used for high production work. In free mold tooling the mold is removed and filled outside the canister. Damp bag is where the mold is located in the canister, yet filled outside. In fixed mold tooling, the mold is contained within the canister, which facilitates automation of the process. Hot isostatic pressing Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) compresses and sinters the part simultaneously by applying heat ranging from 900Â °F (480Â °C) to 2250Â °F (1230Â °C). Argon gas is the most common gas used in HIP because it is an inert gas, thus prevents chemical reactions during the operation. Cold isostatic pressing Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) uses fluid as a means of applying pressure to the mold at room temperature. After removal the part still needs to be sintered. Design Considerations Advantages over standard powder compaction are the possibility of thinner walls and larger workpieces. Height to diameter ratio has no limitation. No specific limitations exist in wall thickness variations, undercuts, reliefs, threads, and cross holes. No lubricants are need for isostatic powder compaction. The minimum wall thickness is 0. 05Â  inches (1. 27Â  mm) and the product can have a weight between 40 and 300 pounds (18 and 136Â  kg). There is 25 to 45% shrinkage of the powder after compacting. Powder production techniques Any fusible material can be atomized. Several techniques have been developed which permit large production rates of powdered particles, often with considerable control over the size ranges of the final grain population. Powders may be prepared by comminution, grinding, chemical reactions, or electrolytic deposition. Powders of the elements titanium, vanadium, thorium, niobium, tantalum, calcium, and uranium have been produced by high-temperature reduction of the corresponding nitrides and carbides. Iron, nickel, uranium, and beryllium submicrometre powders are obtained by reducing metallic oxalates and formates. Exceedingly fine particles also have been prepared by directing a stream of molten metal through a high-temperature plasma jet or flame, simultaneously atomizing and comminuting the material. On Earth various chemical- and flame-associated powdering processes are adopted in part to prevent serious degradation of particle surfaces by atmospheric oxygen. Atomization Atomization is accomplished by forcing a molten metal stream through an orifice at moderate pressures. A gas is introduced into the metal stream just before it leaves the nozzle, serving to create turbulence as the entrained gas expands (due to heating) and exits into a large collection volume exterior to the orifice. The collection volume is filled with gas to promote further turbulence of the molten metal jet. On Earth, air and powder streams are segregated using gravity or cyclonic separation. Most atomised powders are annealed, which helps reduce the oxide and carbon content. The water atomized particles are smaller, cleaner, and nonporous and have a greater breadth of size, which allows better compacting. Simple atomization techniques are available in which liquid metal is forced through an orifice at a sufficiently high velocity to ensure turbulent flow. The usual performance index used is the Reynolds number R = fvd/n, where f = fluid density, v = velocity of the exit stream, d = diameter of the opening, and n = absolute viscosity. At low R the liquid jet oscillates, but at higher velocities the stream becomes turbulent and breaks into droplets. Pumping energy is applied to droplet formation with very low efficiency (on the order of 1%) and control over the size distribution of the metal particles produced is rather poor. Other techniques such as nozzle vibration, nozzle asymmetry, multiple impinging streams, or molten-metal injection into ambient gas are all available to increase atomization efficiency, produce finer grains, and to narrow the particle size distribution. Unfortunately, it is difficult to eject metals through orifices smaller than a few millimeters in diameter, which in practice limits the minimum size of powder grains to approximately 10 ? m. Atomization also produces a wide spectrum of particle sizes, necessitating downstream classification by screening and remelting a significant fraction of the grain boundary. Centrifugal disintegration Centrifugal disintegration of molten particles offers one way around these problems. Extensive experience is available with iron, steel, and aluminium. Metal to be powdered is formed into a rod which is introduced into a chamber through a rapidly rotating spindle. Opposite the spindle tip is an electrode from which an arc is established which heats the metal rod. As the tip material fuses, the rapid rod rotation throws off tiny melt droplets which solidify before hitting the chamber walls. A circulating gas sweeps particles from the chamber. Similar techniques could be employed in space or on the Moon. The chamber wall could be rotated to force new powders into remote collection vessels,[9] and the electrode could be replaced by a solar mirror focused at the end of the rod. An alternative approach capable of producing a very narrow distribution of grain sizes but with low throughput consists of a rapidly spinning bowl heated to well above the melting point of the material to be powdered. Liquid metal, introduced onto the surface of the basin near the center at flow rates adjusted to permit a thin metal film to skim evenly up the walls and over the edge, breaks into droplets, each approximately the thickness of the film. [10] Other techniques Another powder-production technique involves a thin jet of liquid metal intersected by high-speed streams of atomized water which break the jet into drops and cool the powder before it reaches the bottom of the bin. In subsequent operations the powder is dried. This is called water atomisation. The advantage is that metal solidifies faster than by gas atomization since the heat capacity of water is some magnitudes higher, mainly a result of higher density. Since the solidification rate is inversely proportional to the particle size smaller particles can be made using water atomisation. The smaller the particles, the more homogeneous the micro structure will be. Notice that particles will have a more irregular shape and the particle size distribution will be wider. In addition, some surface contamination can occur by oxidation skin formation. Powder can be reduced by some kind of pre-consolidation treatment as annealing. sed for ceramic tool Powder compaction [pic] [pic] Rhodium metal: powder, pressed pellet (3*105 psi), remelted Powder compaction is the process of compacting metal powder in a die through the application of high pressures. Typically the tools are held in the vertical orientation with the punch tool forming the bottom of the cavity. The powder is then compact ed into a shape and then ejected from the die cavity. [7] In a number of these applications the parts may require very little additional work for their intended use; making for very cost efficient manufacturing. The density of the compacted powder is directly proportional to the amount of pressure applied. Typical pressures range from 80 psi to 1000 psi, pressures from 1000 psi to 1,000,000 psi have been obtained. Pressure of 10 tons/in? to 50 tons/in? are commonly used for metal powder compaction. To attain the same compression ratio across a component with more than one level or height, it is necessary to work with multiple lower punches. A cylindrical workpiece is made by single-level tooling. A more complex shape can be made by the common multiple-level tooling. Production rates of 15 to 30 parts per minutes are common.